Biased signaling, the differential activation of distinct signaling pathways, is currently at the center of pharmacology. Reliable characterization of biased ligands requires robust scales applicable to all ligand classes: agonists, neutral antagonists, and inverse agonists. To this end, constitutive receptor activity should be included in the models.
Keywords: GPCR; biased signaling; constitutive receptor activity; inverse agonists.
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