Smartphone-based drug testing in the hands of patients with substance-use disorder-a usability study

Abstract

Aim: A clinical study was performed to test the usability of a smartphone eye-scanning app at a needle exchange facility to detect drug use to support therapy.

Methods: The study recruited 24 subjects who visited the facility one to three times, making a total of 40 visits. During each visit the subjects underwent testing for non-convergence (NC), nystagmus (NY), and pupillary light reflex (PLR) using a smartphone-based eHealth system. The collected eye data were transformed into key features that represent eye characteristics. During each visit, a time-line follow-back interview on recent drug use and a usability questionnaire were completed.

Results: Technical usability of the smartphone eye-scanning app was good for PLR and NC, where key features were generated in 82%-91% of the cases. For NY, only 60% succeeded due to cognitive problems to follow instructions. In most cases, subjects were under the influence of drugs when participating in the tests, with an average of 2.4 different drugs ingested within the last 24 h. The key features from PLR could distinguish use of opioids from central stimulants. The usability questionnaire results indicate that 23 of the 24 subjects could perform the eye-scanning by themselves after a short training, even when under severe influence of drugs. The caregiver assessed that 20 out of the 24 challenging subjects could potentially perform these tests in an indoors, home-like environment.

Conclusions: Smartphone-based eye-scanning is functional in a patient population with heavy drug use, also when under the influence of drugs. The use of central stimulants can be distinguished from the use of opioids.

Keywords: addiction; eHealth (mobile health); eye-scanning; substance-use disorders; usability.